Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Drinking Water

PFAS are man-made, industrially produced compounds.  Production of these chemicals began in the 1940s and there are now more than 14,000 different chemicals in the PFAS family.  A wide variety of products, including stain-resistant fabric coatings, non-stick coatings (Teflon), food packaging, and firefighting foam, contain PFAS.   PFAS are classified as contaminants of emerging concern, meaning that research into the harm they may cause to human health is still ongoing. The most commonly studied PFAS are perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), perfluorohexane sulfonic acid (PFHxS), and perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA). PFOA, PFOS, and other PFAS are highly resistant to break down in the environment.  Human exposure can occur by eating, drinking, or inhaling.  EPA reports that scientists have found traces of one or more PFAS in the blood of a high percentage of people they tested, and that PFAS are found throughout the environment.

On April 26, 2024, EPA’s PFAS National Primary Drinking Water Regulation (the PFAS Rule) was published in the Federal Register.  The PFAS Rule established legally enforceable levels for six PFAS known to occur individually and/or as mixtures in drinking water. Under the PFAS Rule, EPA will regulate five PFAS chemicals as individual compounds. They are PFOA, PFOS, PFNA, PFHxS, and HFPO-DA. EPA will also regulate four PFAS chemicals as a mixture: PFHxS, PFNA, HFPO-DA, and PFBS.

PFAS can often be found together and in varying combinations as mixtures. Decades of research show mixtures of different chemicals can have additive health effects, even if the individual chemicals are each present at lower levels. With this rule, EPA has set limits for these chemicals individually and/or as mixtures.

On May 14, 2025, EPA announced that it will keep the current regulations for PFOA and PFOS.  EPA also announced that it intends to rescind the regulations for PFHxS, PFNA, HFPO-DA (Gen-X), and the Hazard Index, and reconsider the regulatory determinations that led to these regulations.  EPA intends to issue a proposed rule in late 2025 and finalize that rule in the spring of 2026.

The specific limits, as set by the 2024 PFAS Rule, are:

PFAS Compound	MCL (1)
Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA)	4.0 ppt(2)
Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS)	4.0 ppt
Perfluorohexane sulfonic acid (PFHxS)	10 ppt
Perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA)	10 ppt
Hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPO–DA)	10 ppt
A Hazard Index (HI) MCL to account for dose-additive health effects for mixtures that could include two or more of four PFAS (PFHxS, PFNA, HFPO–DA, and perfluorobutane sulfonic acid (PFBS)).	HI = 1 (3)

NOTES:
(1) The MCL (Maximum Contaminant Level) is the highest level of a contaminant that is allowed in drinking water.
(2) ppt = parts per trillion
(3) The Hazard Index (HI) is a number that is calculated based on the contaminants present and their concentrations.

For more information on MCLs visit EPA's National Primary Drinking Water Regulations webpage.

Public water systems (waterworks) must complete the initial monitoring requirements by April 26, 2027. They must inform the public of the level of PFAS measured in their drinking water by April 26, 2027.  Per the current PFAS Rule, they must implement solutions to reduce PFAS in their drinking water to levels below the standards by April 26, 2029.  EPA has indicated that they intend to extend the compliance date to April 26, 2031, but that date is dependent upon the issuance of a revised rule.

There are over 1,600 community plus nontransient noncommunity waterworks in Virginia that are subject to the PFAS drinking water rule. Most of these systems will primarily have to conduct monitoring to confirm that they do not have PFAS at levels exceeding the regulatory standards. EPA estimates that between about 6% and 10% of public drinking water systems nationwide may have to take action to reduce PFAS to meet these new standards.

EPA estimates that between about 6% and 10% of the public drinking water systems subject to this rule may have to take action to reduce PFAS to meet these new standards.  That’s why you should contact your local water utility to find out more about your drinking water, including what contaminants may be present. You should ask if they are monitoring for PFAS, what the levels are, and whether any response actions are needed and are being taken. The standards in this rule are set to reduce PFAS to the lowest levels that are feasible for effective implementation.  If you are concerned about the level of PFAS in your drinking water, consider installing in-home water treatment (e.g., filters) that are certified to lower the levels of PFAS in your water. For more information on home filters go to: https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2024-04/water-filter-fact-sheet.pdf.

PFAS can enter drinking water at sites where they are made, used, disposed of, or spilled. PFAS can be found in the air near manufacturing facilities and can enter rainwater. PFAS are very mobile and can be transported through rainwater run-off and enter surface water (lakes, ponds, etc.) or seep through the soil and migrate into ground water (underground sources of drinking water). Because PFAS are very long-lasting and are not easily broken down by sunlight or other natural processes, they may remain in the environment for many years.

If a public water system or your private well gets its water from a surface or ground water source that is contaminated with PFAS, and the water is not properly treated to remove the PFAS, the chemicals may be in your drinking water and can pass into your body when you ingest (drink or eat food cooked in) them.

If you receive a water bill, your water comes from a public water supply. If you do not pay for your water, but you live in a rented apartment, manufactured home park or other similar community you may still receive water from a public water supply. Inquire with the property manager about your water source. If your water does not come from a public water supply, it comes from a private water system.   Private water system sources include:

• Well
• Rainwater Cistern
• Spring
• Pond
• Hauled Water

Virginia Department of Health Office of Drinking Water regulates public water systems, which are systems that provide water for human consumption to at least 15 service connections or serves at least 25 people for at least 60 days each year. This includes water used for drinking, food preparation, bathing, showering, tooth brushing, and dishwashing. Public water systems range in size from large municipalities to small churches and restaurants relying on a single well.

A person will not be able to see, smell, or taste PFAS in his or her drinking water. Analysis of a water sample at a laboratory certified to test for PFAS is the only way to know for sure whether drinking water has been contaminated with PFAS.

If you are concerned about PFAS in your drinking water, EPA recommends you contact your local water utility to learn more about your drinking water and to see whether they have monitoring data for PFAS or can provide any specific recommendations for your community.

If you own a home drinking water well, EPA recommends learning more about how to protect and maintain your well for all contaminants of concern. For information on home drinking water wells visit: http://www.epa.gov/safewater.

Additionally, if you are concerned about levels of PFAS found in your drinking water, consider actions that may reduce your exposure including installing a home or point of use filter or using an alternative water source, if possible, while steps are being taken to further understand levels of concern.

It is important to keep in mind that exposure to PFAS does not always mean a person will have health effects. Whether or not a person experiences a health effect from exposure to PFAS depends on how long a person was exposed (duration), how often they were exposed (frequency), and how much PFAS they were exposed to (dose). Personal factors like age, lifestyle, and other illnesses may also determine if a person experiences a health effect from exposure to PFAS. There are many chemicals in the PFAS family, and they may cause different health effects. The health effects of PFOS, PFOA, PFHxS, and PFNA have been more widely studied than other chemicals in the PFAS family. Some, but not all, studies in humans with PFAS exposure have shown that certain PFAS may:

• Affect growth, learning, and behavior of infants and children;
• Lower a woman’s chance of getting pregnant;
• Interfere with the body’s natural hormones;
• Increase cholesterol levels;
• Affect the immune system; or
• Increase the risk of certain cancers.

Scientists are still learning about the health effects of exposures to mixtures of PFAS. For the most part, laboratory animals exposed to high doses of one or more PFAS have shown changes in liver, thyroid, and pancreatic function, as well as some changes in hormone levels. Because animals and humans process these chemicals differently, more research will help scientists fully understand how PFAS affect human health.

Completely eliminating exposure to PFAS is not practical because they are so common throughout the world. PFAS are also present in many consumer products. Learning about the presence of PFAS in consumer products and avoiding or limiting exposure to these products can help reduce PFAS exposures.

Because many household products like carpeting and upholstery contain PFAS, ingestion of household dust can also be a route of exposure, especially for infants and young children through hand to mouth contact. Household surfaces should be dusted regularly to lower the amount of dust in the house.

PFAS exposure through drinking water can be reduced by treating the water using reverse osmosis or activated carbon filtration units, or by using an alternative source of water that is not contaminated.   In general, dermal contact with water is not a health concern because PFAS are not readily absorbed through the skin. Using water that contains PFAS for showering, bathing, laundry, or household cleaning is not likely to significantly increase your risk.

EPA encourages women and people who are currently pregnant, nursing, or bottle feeding an infant with formula to consult with their physician regarding concerns related to breastfeeding and potential exposure to chemicals such as PFOA, PFOS, GenX chemicals (i.e., HFPO-DA and its ammonium salt), PFHxS, PFNA, and PFBS. For more information about PFAS and breastfeeding, visit the  CDC's Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

Studies have shown that only a small amount of PFAS can get into your body through skin. Hence, neither bathing nor showering are likely to be primary routes of PFOA, PFOS, GenX chemicals (i.e., HFPO-DA and its ammonium salt), PFHxS, PFNA, or PFBS exposure.

No. These chemicals cannot be removed by heating or boiling water.

Deciding whether to buy and drink bottled water is a personal choice. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates food, including bottled water. The FDA has not established standards for any PFAS in bottled water at this time, but now that EPA has finalized these standards, the FDA is required under Section 410 of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act to evaluate what PFAS standards are appropriate for bottled water.  FDA has analyzed for PFAS in bottled water (carbonated and non-carbonated) through a targeted survey (2016) and through the FDA’s Total Diet Study samples. Results from the studies did not detect PFAS in any sample. The FDA is currently conducting an additional targeted survey for PFAS in bottled water and results will be posted on the FDA’s website when complete. If you have questions about bottled water, please contact the FDA at: 1-888INFO-FDA (1-888-463-6332).

Individuals who are concerned about PFAS in their water may wish to consider in-home water treatment filters that are certified to lower PFAS levels in water. Learn more about these filters at: EPA Water Filter Fact Sheet

PFAS in drinking water can be a significant portion of a person’s total PFAS exposure in places where there is PFAS drinking water contamination.  Exactly how much of a person’s exposure comes from drinking water depends on a range of variables, including the levels of PFAS present in their drinking water, as well as other environmental factors like proximity to industrial sites that may release PFAS into the air, water, or soil. The types of products people use in their daily lives that may contain PFAS include nonstick cookware, waterproof clothing, stain-resistant fabrics, and certain water- or sweat-resistant cosmetics. Some people may also have higher levels of exposure through their work, like firefighters who may use fire-fighting foam that contains PFAS. All of these factors make it difficult to determine exactly how much of a person’s exposure comes through any single source.  People can be exposed to many different PFAS at the same time, which can magnify these health risks. Reducing your exposure to PFAS lowers your risk for these health problems.

The more you reduce your exposure to PFAS, the more you reduce your risk. Many water pitcher filters and other home-based water filters are able to reduce the levels of PFAS in drinking water. If you decide to use a filter, look for ones that are certified to reduce PFAS. Be aware that current filters on the market will not yet be certified to reduce PFAS to the new EPA standards, but the added filtration they provide can help reduce your exposure.  More information on in-home water filters is available at EPA Water Filter Fact Sheet

PFOA and PFOS were widely used to make carpets, clothing, fabrics for furniture, paper packaging for food, and other materials that are resistant to water, grease or stains. They were also used for firefighting at airfields and in a number of industrial processes. Many of these uses were phased out by U.S. manufacturers in the mid-2000s but some uses remain. GenX chemicals are replacements for PFOA, and PFBS is a replacement for PFOS.

In addition to drinking water, people may be exposed to these chemicals through breathing air contaminated with PFAS chemicals or to a lesser degree, through dermal contact with products containing PFAS chemicals such as clothing or furniture. Pathways for PFAS exposure is an area of research that is still developing.

The quality and safety of drinking water from wells that service fewer than 25 persons, such as most household wells, are not regulated by the federal government under the Safe Drinking Water Act nor by many state governments and laws. To ensure that safe drinking water is provided to their households, EPA recommends that you test your household well annually for total coliform bacteria, nitrates, total dissolved solids, and pH levels. If you choose to test your water yourself, it is important to use a state-certified laboratory using EPA-developed testing methods.

You can also:  Contact your state environmental or health agency for detailed advice or to obtain a list of state-certified laboratories using EPA-developed testing methods in drinking water. The  National Environmental Laboratory  Accreditation Management System website may also be helpful in finding a laboratory to test for PFAS.

• If you remain concerned about the level of PFAS in your drinking water:
  • Contact your state environmental protection agency or health department and your local water utility to find out what actions they recommend.
  • If possible, consider using an alternate water source for drinking, preparing food, cooking, brushing teeth, preparing baby formula, and any other activity when your family might swallow water.
  • Consider installing in-home water treatment (e.g., filters) that is certified to lower the levels of PFAS in your water. Go to EPA Home Water Filters Factsheet for more information.

 

Private well owners are responsible for assuring safe drinking water for their households. The quality and safety of drinking water from private domestic wells are not regulated by the federal government under the Safe Drinking Water Act nor by most state governments and laws.

With this announcement of the PFAS regulation, EPA is also announcing nearly $1 billion in available funding for states and territories, through the Emerging Contaminants in Small or Disadvantaged Communities (EC-SDC) Grant Program, which can be used for initial testing and treatment at both public water systems and to help owners of household wells address PFAS contamination. Learn more using link 3 below.

EPA is updating the EC-SDC and the Small, Underserved, and Disadvantaged Communities (SUDC) grant programs so that states can further assist household well owners to address drinking water contaminants.

In addition, EPA is providing training and technical assistance (TA) to owners and managers of private drinking water wells and to the technical assistance providers that serve private well owners and/or are charged with protecting public health. Under this grant, the TA provider can provide test kits to test for emerging contaminants, such as PFAS, and provide follow-up technical assistance to household well owners who receive results indicating contamination.  For more on these grants visit:

1. Training and technical assistance
2. Emerging Contaminants in Small or Disadvantaged Communities Grant Program
3. Small, Underserved, or Disadvantaged Communities Grant Program

To help communities on the frontlines of PFAS contamination, EPA is providing $5 billion in grant funding over the course of fiscal years 2022-2026 through the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Emerging Contaminants in Small or Disadvantaged Communities Grant Program. This funding can be used to reduce PFAS and other emerging contaminants in drinking water in underserved communities. Eligible uses include efforts that benefit small or disadvantaged communities in testing and remediating emerging contaminants, including water filtration.

The Emerging Contaminants in Small or Disadvantaged Communities Grant Program complements nearly $1 billion in FY22 Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) State Revolving Fund (SRF) funding dedicated specifically to addressing emerging contaminants like PFAS, the first of $5 billion between now and 2026. Communities can also use funding through the general and BIL supplemental SRF, totaling over $23 billion over the next 5 years to address emerging contaminants in water.

This webpage and the VDH Drinking Water State Revolving Fund webpage contain more information on the available resources including funding.

It is important to keep in mind that exposure to PFAS does not always mean a person will have health effects. Whether or not a person gets sick from exposure to PFAS depends on how long a person was exposed (duration), how often they were exposed (frequency), and how much PFAS they were exposed to (dose). Personal factors like age, lifestyle, and other illnesses may also determine whether or not a person gets sick from exposure to PFAS.

There are many chemicals in the PFAS family, and they may cause different health effects if you are exposed to them. The health effects of PFOS, PFOA, PFHxS, and PFNA have been more widely studied than other per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS).

Some, but not all, studies in humans with PFAS exposure have shown that certain PFAS may:

• Affect growth, learning, and behavior of infants and children;
• Lower a woman’s chance of getting pregnant;
• Interfere with the body’s natural hormones;
• Increase cholesterol levels;
• Affect the immune system; or
• Increase the risk of certain cancers.

Scientists are still learning about the health effects of exposures to mixtures of PFAS.

For the most part, laboratory animals exposed to high doses of one or more of these PFAS have shown changes in liver, thyroid, and pancreatic function, as well as some changes in hormone levels. Because animals and humans process these chemicals differently, more research will help scientists fully understand how PFAS affect human health.

The available data suggest that PFAS are not metabolized nor do they undergo chemical reactions in the body. Perfluoroalkyls are primarily excreted in the urine. There are substantial differences in the time it takes for PFAS to be eliminated from the human body and animal species. The estimated time to reduce PFAS in the human body by 50% is 2.1-8.5 years for PFOA, 3.1-7.4 years for PFOS, 4.7-15 years for PFHxS, and 2.5-4.3 years for PFNA. Much shorter timeframes for elimination have been estimated in experimental animals.

Because PFAS are so widespread in the environment, it is difficult to avoid all exposure to PFAS chemicals. You may be able to reduce your exposure by avoiding water that is known to be contaminated with PFAS chemicals.

If PFAS are present in drinking water, filtering the water or using an alternative source can reduce exposure to PFAS.

PFAS are present in many consumer products. Be an informed consumer and research if manufacturers are using PFAS in packaging or the manufacture of products (i.e. clothing, carpet). If you want to reduce your family’s exposure, consider limiting the use of household products that were made using chemicals in the PFAS family.

Some of these products include:

• Nonstick cookware, like pots and pans
• Furniture and carpet that is stain-resistant
• Clothing treated with water, stain, or dirt repellant
• Non-stick food packaging, like French fry cartons, microwave popcorn bags, and pizza boxes
• Makeup and other personal care products that have ingredients with “fluoro” or “perfluoro” in the name

Note: not all non-stick coatings are PFAS-based.

The federal Food and Drug Administration provides additional information on PFAS in food and food packaging at: fda.gov/food/chemicals/and-polyfluoroalkyl-substances-pfas.

Pregnant and nursing women may be more susceptible than the general population to the health effects of PFAS. As a precautionary measure, pregnant and nursing women may want to consider treating their water source to remove the type of PFAS present or use an alternate water source for drinking, making ice, brushing teeth and preparing food. Women who are planning to become pregnant may wish to take steps to reduce their exposure to PFAS, due to the slow elimination of PFAS from the human body.

Unborn babies may be exposed to PFAS through their umbilical cordre blood if their mother ingests PFAS before and while she is pregnant, and babies may be exposed through breastmilk. Research suggests that fetuses and infants are more vulnerable to exposure to PFAS. Long-term exposure to PFOA, PFOS, and PFHxS leads to a buildup of these chemicals in women of child-bearing age that results in more exposure to the fetus and breastfed infants. Breastfeeding provides many health benefits to both a mother and infant. VDH recommends that women currently breastfeeding, and pregnant women who plan to breastfeed, continue to do so. For information about , see the VDH breastfeeding webpage

Bottle-fed infants are also of concern because they drink more water per body weight than adults. If you are concerned about exposure through bottle feeding, consider using an alternative water source or filtered drinking water for making formula. This can lower exposure to PFAS for your infant.

Please consult with your healthcare provider with any concerns.

Children have different exposure circumstances that make them especially sensitive to environmental contaminants, like PFAS. Understanding these differences is key for evaluating potential for environmental hazards from pollutants. Children consume more of certain foods and water relative to body weight than adults. That means the same glass of water with the same PFAS concentration level results in greater exposure to a child versus an adult, even though they are drinking the same amount. Children also do not excrete chemicals as easily as adults, because the enzymes in their bodies that break down contaminants are still developing. That increases the chances for contaminants such as PFAS to interfere with a child’s growth and development. In addition, young children tend to play close to the ground and come into contact with contaminated soil outdoors. To ensure the protection of children and other sensitive populations, the Ohio PFAS Action Levels are set to protect the most sensitive populations, thereby protecting the health of all populations in Ohio.

Since many household pets are smaller than people, they also consume more of certain foods and water relative to their body weight than people. That means that the same bowl of water with the same PFAS concentration results in greater exposure to household pets, even though they may be drinking the same amount. As a precaution, if you have elevated levels of PFAS in your water, you should consider using alternative water for your household pets.

While a PFAS blood test measures how much of specific PFAS are in a person’s body at the time of the test, there are limitations. A PFAS blood test cannot:

• Tell you where or how you were exposed to PFAS found in your body;
• Tell you what, if any, health problems might occur or have occurred because of PFAS in your body; or
• Be used by your doctor to guide treatment decisions.

Measuring a person’s exposure to PFAS and monitoring potential impacts on human health is best addressed through consultation with a physician. VDH has and will continue to provide information and recommendations to healthcare providers to help providers and patients make informed decisions about what PFAS exposure might mean for an individual’s health. There is no recommendation from VDH or the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) that clinicians should test patients for PFAS. Please consult your healthcare provider if you have concerns regarding PFAS exposure.

 

PFAS Testing for Individuals 

VDH does not generally recommend testing your blood for PFAS. Physicians will not be able to treat a specific health issue using the result from this test. Please consult your healthcare provider if you have concerns regarding PFAS exposure.

A blood test for PFAS can tell you what your levels are at the time the blood was drawn, but not whether levels in your body are “safe” or “unsafe.”

• Most people in the U.S. have measurable amounts of PFAS in their body because PFAS are commonly used in commercial and industrial products.
• The PFAS blood test is not a clinical test and cannot tell you whether your health has been or will be affected.
• Many health issues associated with PFAS, such as increased cholesterol and decreased thyroid hormone levels, commonly occur in the population as a whole – even when not associated with high levels of PFAS in the blood.
  • These health issues can be caused by many factors, and there is no way to know or predict if PFAS exposure has or will cause your health problem.
  • If you have specific health concerns, please consult your doctor for the best treatment choices for you.
• It is complicated to get a PFAS blood test.
  • It is not a routine clinical test, so you would need to contact a private lab directly to arrange the test and it is unlikely that insurance would cover the cost.
  • There are hundreds of PFAS around us. Labs can only test for a small number of PFAS in blood.

 

Laboratories that Offer PFAS Testing 

VDH does not recommend specific labs and does not know specifics regarding the different tests they offer. The cost for PFAS blood testing is in the $500-800 range, not including fees that a clinic might charge for drawing and shipping the blood.

• Vista Analytical Laboratory; 916-673-1520,vista-analytical.com
• Quest Diagnostics; 1-866-697-8378;questdiagnostics.com
• SGS AXYS; 1-888-373-0881;sgsaxys.com

 

What you can do with your test results 

You can compare your levels to those in groups of people nationwide. The National Biomonitoring Program by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) tests a very large group of people for PFAS and other chemicals and tells us about average exposures in the U.S. population. These studies can be used to compare your blood test result to what is known about levels in people throughout the country.

Water treatment in a home to reduce levels of PFAS can be:

• At the point of entry (POE) where treatment all of the water entering the household plumbing system occurs, or;
• At the point of use (POU) which is often at the kitchen sink or primary source of water for drinking or cooking (potentially also including a water line to the refrigerator if it has a plumbed in water line).

Either type of water treatment has pros and cons that should be considered before selecting the best treatment option for a home. The type of treatment system chosen should consider the volume of water that will be used in the home, the number and location of sites where water is consumed in the home, and the type of PFAS chemical identified in the laboratory result.

If water for drinking, cooking and making ice is primarily obtained from the kitchen sink, then the installation of a treatment unit below the sink or on the sink faucet is an option. If drinking water and ice are obtained from the refrigerator, then it is important to consider treating the water line to the refrigerator also.

If drinking water is obtained from multiple locations in a home, then a point of entry, or whole house treatment system may be preferred.

If possible, it is important to choose a treatment system that has been tested and certified to remove the PFAS present in the water based on data provided from the public water system provider or from a laboratory analysis.